Empathy Modulates the Activity of the Sensorimotor Mirror Neuron System during Pain Observation.

AIM: The aim of this study is to analyze the brain activity patterns during the observation of painful expressions and to establish the relationship between this activity and the scores obtained on the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI). METHODS: The study included twenty healthy, right-handed subjects (10 women). We conducted a task-based and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study. The task involved observing pictures displaying painful expressions. We performed a region of interest (ROI) analysis focusing on the core regions of the sensorimotor mirror neuron system (MNS). Resting-state fMRI was utilized to assess the functional connectivity of the sensorimotor MNS regions with the rest of the cortex using a seed-to-voxel approach. Additionally, we conducted a regression analysis to examine the relationship between brain activity and scores from the IRI subtests. RESULTS: Observing painful expressions led to increased activity in specific regions of the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes. The largest cluster of activation was observed in the left inferior parietal lobule (IPL). However, the ROI analysis did not reveal any significant activity in the remaining core regions of the sensorimotor MNS. The regression analysis demonstrated a positive correlation between brain activity during the observation of pain and the "empathic concern" subtest scores of the IRI in both the cingulate gyri and bilateral IPL. Finally, we identified a positive relationship between the "empathic concern" subtest of the IRI and the functional connectivity (FC) of bilateral IPLs with the bilateral prefrontal cortex and the right IFG. CONCLUSION: Observing expressions of pain triggers activation in the sensorimotor MNS, and this activation is influenced by the individual's level of empathy.

Neurofunctional correlates of a neurorehabilitation system based on eye movements in chronic stroke impairment levels: A pilot study.

INTRODUCTION: Rehabilitation after a stroke is widely considered fundamental to improve secondary functional impairments. Accessible methods based on motor learning, motor transfer and virtual environments are necessary to help to improve stroke patients' quality of life. OBJECTIVES: Continuing the line of our previous studies, this work investigated the effect of our new and innovative game-based virtual reality training using the control of virtual objects with gaze in three chronic stroke survivors. METHODS: All participants performed an eye-controlled virtual training task for 4 weeks. Pre- and post-training evaluation were carried out with the Fugl-Meyer Assessment for upper extremity scale as well as performing a tracking task inside an MRI scanner with a MRI-compatible eye-tracker or a joystick. RESULTS: Neural results for each participant show the increase of activity in the motor cortex, basal ganglia and cerebellum for both effectors (hand or eye). CONCLUSION: These promising results have a potential application as a new game-based neurorehabilitation approach to enhance the motor activity of stroke patients.

Medial temporal lobe contributions to resting-state networks.

The medial temporal lobe (MTL) is a set of interconnected brain regions that have been shown to play a central role in behavior as well as in neurological disease. Recent studies using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rsfMRI) have attempted to understand the MTL in terms of its functional connectivity with the rest of the brain. However, the exact characterization of the whole-brain networks that co-activate with the MTL as well as how the various sub-regions of the MTL are associated with these networks remains poorly understood. Here, we attempted to advance these issues by exploiting the high spatial resolution 7T rsfMRI dataset from the Human Connectome Project with a data-driven analysis approach that relied on independent component analysis (ICA) restricted to the MTL. We found that four different well-known resting-state networks co-activated with a unique configuration of MTL subcomponents. Specifically, we found that different sections of the parahippocampal cortex were involved in the default mode, visual and dorsal attention networks; sections of the hippocampus in the somatomotor and default mode networks; and the lateral entorhinal cortex in the dorsal attention network. We replicated this set of results in a validation sample. These results provide new insight into how the MTL and its subcomponents contribute to known resting-state networks. The participation of the MTL in an expanded range of resting-state networks is in line with recent proposals on MTL function.

Differences in regional gray matter volume predict the extent to which openness influences judgments of beauty and pleasantness of interior architectural spaces.

Hedonic evaluation of sensory objects varies from person to person. While this variability has been linked to differences in experience, little is known about why stimuli lead to different evaluations in different people. We used linear mixed-effects models to determine the extent to which the openness, contour, and ceiling height of interior spaces influenced the beauty and pleasantness ratings of 18 participants. Then, by analyzing structural brain images acquired for the same group of participants, we asked if any regional gray matter volume (rGMV) covaried with these differences in the extent to which the three features influence beauty and pleasantness ratings. Voxel-based morphometry analysis revealed that the influence of openness on pleasantness ratings correlated with rGMV in the anterior prefrontal cortex (Brodmann area (BA)-10), and the influence of openness on beauty ratings correlated with rGMV in the temporal pole (BA38) and cluster, including the posterior cingulate cortex (BA31) and paracentral lobule (BA5/6). There were no significant correlations involving contour or ceiling height. Our results suggest that regional variance in gray matter volume may play a role in the computation of hedonic valuation and account for differences in the way people weigh certain attributes of interior architectural spaces.

Changes in resting-state measures of prostate cancer patients exposed to androgen deprivation therapy.

The aim of the present work is to describe the differences in rs-fMRI measures (Amplitude of low frequency fluctuations [ALFF], Regional Homogeneity [ReHo] and Functional Connectivity [FC]) between patients exposed to Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) and a control group. Forty-nine ADT patients and fifteen PC-non-ADT patients (Controls) were included in the study. A neuropsychological evaluation and a resting-state fMRI was performed to evaluate differences in ALFF and ReHo. Region of interest (ROI) analysis was also performed. ROIs were selected among those whose androgen receptor expression (at RNA-level) was the highest. FC analysis was performed using the same ROIs. Higher ALFF in frontal regions and temporal regions was identified in Controls than in ADT patients. In the ROI analysis, higher activity for Controls than ADT patients was shown in the left inferior frontal gyrus and in the left precentral gyrus. Lower ALFF in the right hippocampus and the lateral geniculate nucleus of the right thalamus was identified for Controls than ADT patients. Higher ReHo was observed in Controls in the left parietal-occipital area. Finally, ADT patients presented an increase of FC in more regions than Controls. These differences may reflect an impairment in brain functioning in ADT users.

Music Style Not Only Modulates the Auditory Cortex, but Also Motor Related Areas.

The neuroscience of music has recently attracted significant attention, but the effect of music style on the activation of auditory-motor regions has not been explored. The aim of the present study is to analyze the differences in brain activity during passive listening to non-vocal excerpts of four different music genres (classical, reggaeton, electronic and folk). A functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiment was performed. Twenty-eight participants with no musical training were included in the study. They had to passively listen to music excerpts of the above genres during fMRI acquisition. Imaging analysis was performed at the whole-brain-level and in auditory-motor regions of interest (ROIs). Furthermore, the musical competence of each participant was measured and its relationship with brain activity in the studied ROIs was analyzed. The whole brain analysis showed higher brain activity during reggaeton listening than the other music genres in auditory-related areas. The ROI-analysis showed that reggaeton led to higher activity not only in auditory related areas, but also in some motor related areas, mainly when it was compared with classical music. A positive relationship between the melodic-Music Ear Test (MET) score and brain activity during reggaeton listening was identified in some auditory and motor related areas. The findings revealed that listening to different music styles in musically inexperienced subjects elicits different brain activity in auditory and motor related areas. Reggaeton was, among the studied music genres, the one that evoked the highest activity in the auditory-motor network. These findings are discussed in connection with acoustic analyses of the musical stimuli.

Diffuse optical tomography to measure functional changes during motor tasks: a motor imagery study.

The present work shows the spatial reliability of the diffuse optical tomography (DOT) system in a group of healthy subjects during a motor imagery task. Prior to imagery task performance, the subjects executed a motor task based on the finger to thumb opposition for motor training, and to corroborate the DOT spatial localization during the motor execution. DOT technology and data treatment allows us to distinguish oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin at the cerebral gyri level unlike the cerebral activations provided by fMRI series that were processed using different approaches. Here we show the DOT reliability showing functional activations at the cerebral gyri level during motor execution and motor imagery, which provide subtler cerebral activations than the motor execution. These results will allow the use of the DOT system as a monitoring device in a brain computer interface.

A neuroimaging comparative study of changes in a cellist's brain when playing contemporary and Baroque styles.

The emergence of different styles of Contemporary concert music in the 20th century led to a marked modification of the foundations built on previous styles. This work investigates whether these modifications, which include procedures and technical resources different to those used in the interpretation of previous musical styles, require different encephalic controls to those used in tonal music and if the experience of the musician in these styles influences them. Functional magnetic resonance images of encephalic regions from 13 professional cellists while interpreting Baroque and Contemporary excerpts inside an MRI scanner were acquired. Activation and connectivity encephalic maps show common cortical motor and sensorial regions (Precentral, Postcentral and Supramarginal Gyri) in both interpretation styles, but with different hemispheric intensity levels. However, certain auditory and motor regions only activate during Baroque. Connectivity maps show some exclusive seed-regions; thus, the Heschl's and Superior Frontal Gyri, Planum-Temporal and Caudate appear as prominent seeds when playing Baroque, whereas when playing Contemporary, the main seeds appear in the Cerebellar-Vermis, Insular cortex and Parietal Operculum. The discrepancies found are attributed to different cognitive, sensory and motor demands underlying the musical interpretation of each style, as well as to the musicians' learning of and training in these styles.

Neurofunctional correlates of eye to hand motor transfer.

This work investigates the transfer of motor learning from the eye to the hand and its neural correlates by using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and a sensorimotor task consisting of the continuous tracking of a virtual target. In pretraining evaluation, all the participants (experimental and control group) performed the tracking task inside an MRI scanner using their right hand and a joystick. After which, the experimental group practiced an eye-controlled version of the task for 5 days using an eye tracking system outside the MRI environment. Post-training evaluation was done 1 week after the first scanning session, where all the participants were scanned again while repeating the manual pretraining task. Behavioral results show that the training in the eye-controlled task produced a better performance not only in the eye-controlled modality (motor learning) but also in the hand-controlled modality (motor transfer). Neural results indicate that eye to hand motor transfer is supported by the motor cortex, the basal ganglia and the cerebellum, which is consistent with previous research focused on other effectors. These results may be of interest in neurorehabilitation to activate the motor systems and help in the recovery of motor functions in stroke or movement disorder patients.

Visual inputs decrease brain activity in frontal areas during silent lipreading.

AIM: The aim of the present work is to analyze the modulation of the brain activity within the areas involved in lipreading when an additional visual stimulus is included. METHODS: The experiment consisted of two fMRI runs (lipreading_only and lipreading+picture) where two conditions were considered in each one (oral speech sentences condition [OSS] and oral speech syllables condition [OSSY]). RESULTS: During lipreading-only, higher activity in the left middle temporal gyrus (MTG) was identified for OSS than OSSY; during lipreading+picture, apart from the left MTG, higher activity was also present in the supplementary motor area (SMA), the left precentral gyrus (PreCG) and the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG). The comparison between these two runs revealed higher activity for lipreading-only in the SMA and the left IFG. CONCLUSION: The presence of a visual reference during a lipreading task leads to a decrease in activity in frontal areas.

Is it necessary to show virtual limbs in action observation neurorehabilitation systems?

INTRODUCTION: Action observation neurorehabilitation systems are usually based on the observation of a virtual limb performing different kinds of actions. In this way, the activity in the frontoparietal Mirror Neuron System is enhanced, which can be helpful to rehabilitate stroke patients. However, the presence of limbs in such systems might not be necessary to produce mirror activity, for example, frontoparietal mirror activity can be produced just by the observation of virtual tool movements. The objective of this work was to explore to what point the presence of a virtual limb impacts the Mirror Neuron System activity in neurorehabilitation systems. METHODS: The study was conducted by using an action observation neurorehabilitation task during a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiment with healthy volunteers and comparing two action observation conditions that: 1 - included or 2 - did not include a virtual limb. RESULTS: It was found that activity in the Mirror Neuron System was similar during both conditions (i.e. virtual limb present or absent). CONCLUSIONS: These results open up the possibility of using new tasks that do not include virtual limbs in action observation neurorehabilitation environments, which can give more freedom to develop such systems.

Developmental grey matter changes in superior parietal cortex accompany improved transitive reasoning.

The neural basis of developmental changes in transitive reasoning in parietal regions was examined, using voxel-based morphometry. Young adolescents and adults performed a transitive reasoning task, subsequent to undergoing anatomical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain scans. Behaviorally, adults reasoned more accurately than did the young adolescents. Neural results showed (i) less grey matter density in superior parietal cortex in the adults than in the young adolescents, possibly due to a developmental period of synaptic pruning; (ii) improved performance in the reasoning task was negatively correlated with grey matter density in superior parietal cortex in the adolescents, but not in the adult group; and (iii) the latter results were driven by the more difficult trials, requiring greater spatial manipulation. Taken together, the results support the idea that during development, regions in superior parietal cortex are fine-tuned, to support more robust spatial manipulation, resulting in greater accuracy and efficiency in transitive reasoning.

Limbic-visual attenuation to crying faces underlies neglectful mothering.

Neglectful mothering is one of the most common forms of childhood maltreatment, involving a severe disregard of the child's needs, yet little is known about its neural substrate. A child's needs are usually conveyed by signals of distress revealed by crying faces. We tested whether infant and adult crying faces are processed differently in two sociodemographically similar groups of Neglectful (NM) and non-neglectful Control Mothers (CM). We used functional brain imaging to analyze the BOLD response from 43 mothers (23 neglectful and 20 control) while viewing faces from infants and adults (crying and neutral). In NM as compared to CM, the BOLD responses to both infant and adult crying faces were significantly reduced in the cerebellum, lingual, fusiform, amygdala, hippocampus, parahippocampus, and inferior frontal gyrus. The reduced BOLD was also modulated by comorbid psychiatric symptoms. In the CM, frontal activation to infant versus adult crying faces was enhanced, whereas in the NM activation in the anterior cingulate cortex to infant crying was reduced compared to adult crying. The altered neural response to crying faces in NM, showing generic face and infant-specific face processing deficits, could underlie their characteristic poor social abilities as well as their poor response to infant needs, both affecting the caregiving role.

The relationship between amplitude of low frequency fluctuations and gray matter volume of the mirror neuron system: Differences between low disability multiple sclerosis patients and healthy controls.

The study of the relationship between function and structure of the brain could be particularly interesting in neurodegenerative diseases like multiple sclerosis (MS). The aim of the present work is to identify differences of the amplitude of low frequency fluctuations (ALFF) in the mirror neuron system (MNS) between MS patients and healthy controls and to study the relationship between ALFF and the gray matter volume (GMV) of the regions that belong to the MNS. Relapsing-remitting MS patients with minor disability were compared to healthy controls (HC) using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), anatomic T1 weighted images and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). Region of interest (ROI) analyses was performed in the MNS regions. A decrease of ALFF in MS patients was observed in the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG). Furthermore, a correlation between ALFF in the IFG and the GMV of the left inferior parietal lobule (IPL) was identified. This relationship was different for MS patients than for HC, which may be associated with changes in diffusivity measures which were impaired in MS patients. MS patients with low disability may show ALFF differences in the MNS without clinical correspondence. This functional difference may be associated with cortical and subcortical changes related to the disease.

Comparing diffuse optical tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging signals during a cognitive task: pilot study.

Diffuse optical tomography (DOT) measures concentration changes in both oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin providing three-dimensional images of local brain activations. A pilot study, which compares both DOT and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) volumes through t-maps given by canonical statistical parametric mapping (SPM) processing for both data modalities, is presented. The DOT series were processed using a method that is based on a Bayesian filter application on raw DOT data to remove physiological changes and minimum description length application index to select a number of singular values, which reduce the data dimensionality during image reconstruction and adaptation of DOT volume series to normalized standard space. Therefore, statistical analysis is performed with canonical SPM software in the same way as fMRI analysis is done, accepting DOT volumes as if they were fMRI volumes. The results show the reproducibility and ruggedness of the method to process DOT series on group analysis using cognitive paradigms on the prefrontal cortex. Difficulties such as the fact that scalp-brain distances vary between subjects or cerebral activations are difficult to reproduce due to strategies used by the subjects to solve arithmetic problems are considered. T-images given by fMRI and DOT volume series analyzed in SPM show that at the functional level, both DOT and fMRI measures detect the same areas, although DOT provides complementary information to fMRI signals about cerebral activity.

The Mirror Neuron System in Relapsing Remitting Multiple Sclerosis Patients with Low Disability.

To study the visuospatial/visuoperceptive function using a mirror neuron system (MNS) based approach in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients and a healthy control group. Two task-based fMRIs (an execution task and an observation task) and one resting-fMRI were performed in a group of MS patients (n = 24) and a group of healthy controls (n = 15). The execution and observation tasks consisted of the performance or observation of the index-thumb opposition task. Statistical parametric mapping approaches were used to identify differences in the brain activity and functional connectivity (FC) of the MNS between MS patients and healthy controls. Furthermore, visuospatial and visuoperceptive evaluation was performed by a neuropsychologist on all the participants. No global differences between groups were identified when the activity during both the execution and the observation conditions was tested. Nevertheless, differences in FC maps were identified: healthy controls showed higher connectivity between the MNS regions (between the inferior parietal lobule and the inferior frontal gyrus bilaterally) than MS patients. The absence of differences between the studied groups may be the consequence of the selection of a cohort of MS patients with low disability and with no recent relapse. However, the presence of a decrease in functional connectivity within the MNS in MS patients could indicate the presence of subclinical disability in MNS functioning, not measurable by neuropsychological tests.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage and visuospatial and visuoperceptive impairment: disruption of the mirror neuron system.

Nearly 20 % of patients who suffer a subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) still display cognitive impairment even a year after follow-up. Visuospatial and visuoperceptive domains may be impaired in this cognitive impairment and may not have been fully studied in these patients. Furthermore, these cognitively impaired domains have been associated with activity in the so-called mirror neuron system (MNS). The aim of the study is to analyze the pattern of brain activity with an MNS task-based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study in SAH patients. A complete neuropsychological assessment and fMRI study (with observation and execution conditions) were performed in patients with a history of SAH registered in the database of the Hospital Universitario de Canarias and a healthy control group. The patients had to meet all the following inclusion criteria for the study (less than 50 years old; SAH with a Fisher score 1-3; no vasospasm or ischemia; minimum follow-up of one year). Twelve SAH patients were studied. Three of which displayed visuospatial/visuoperceptive impairment. fMRI study showed the presence of higher activity in MNS regions in these patients than in patients with normal visuospatial/visuoperceptive functions. Furthermore, there was a negative correlation between the test scores and brain activity in premotor regions of the studied patients. SAH patients with visuospatial/visuoperceptive impairment have greater activity in the MNS regions. This finding may be associated with a subcortical dysfunction, leading to a disruption of neural activity and less efficient behavior of this brain network.

The mirror neuron system also rests.

The mirror neuron system (MNS) is a brain network that has been associated with the understanding of the actions performed by others. The main areas of the brain that are considered as belonging to the MNS are the rostral part of the inferior parietal lobe (IPL) and the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG). Many studies have tried to focus on the relationship between the regions belonging to the MNS, but a little consideration has been given to the study of the MNS in resting conditions. In the present experiment, the MNS has been studied by two fMRI modalities (task-based fMRI and resting-fMRI) and three analytical procedures [task-block comparison, functional connectivity (FC), and independent component analysis (ICA)]. The task-fMRI with block design showed a mirror activity located in the rostral IPL. The coordinates of this local maximum voxel were defined as a region of interest (ROI) for an FC analysis of the resting-fMRI. This analysis revealed the existence of a functional connectivity within regions forming the core of MNS network and also with other regions with mirror properties. Finally, resting-state fMRI ICA showed the same functional network, although it was more restricted to the core MNS regions. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that approaches the MNS using the resting-state fMRI analysis using independent component analysis and functional connectivity at the same time.

Temporal Uncertainty and Temporal Estimation Errors Affect Insular Activity and the Frontostriatal Indirect Pathway during Action Update: A Predictive Coding Study.

Action update, substituting a prepotent behavior with a new action, allows the organism to counteract surprising environmental demands. However, action update fails when the organism is uncertain about when to release the substituting behavior, when it faces temporal uncertainty. Predictive coding states that accurate perception demands minimization of precise prediction errors. Activity of the right anterior insula (rAI) is associated with temporal uncertainty. Therefore, we hypothesize that temporal uncertainty during action update would cause the AI to decrease the sensitivity to ascending prediction errors. Moreover, action update requires response inhibition which recruits the frontostriatal indirect pathway associated with motor control. Therefore, we also hypothesize that temporal estimation errors modulate frontostriatal connections. To test these hypotheses, we collected fMRI data when participants performed an action-update paradigm within the context of temporal estimation. We fit dynamic causal models to the imaging data. Competing models comprised the inferior occipital gyrus (IOG), right supramarginal gyrus (rSMG), rAI, right presupplementary motor area (rPreSMA), and the right striatum (rSTR). The winning model showed that temporal uncertainty drove activity into the rAI and decreased insular sensitivity to ascending prediction errors, as shown by weak connectivity strength of rSMG→rAI connections. Moreover, temporal estimation errors weakened rPreSMA→rSTR connections and also modulated rAI→rSTR connections, causing the disruption of action update. Results provide information about the neurophysiological implementation of the so-called horse-race model of action control. We suggest that, contrary to what might be believed, unsuccessful action update could be a homeostatic process that represents a Bayes optimal encoding of uncertainty.

Motivation and self-concept in windsurfers: A study of professional and recreational participants / Motivación y autoconcepto en windsurfistas: Un estudio de participantes profesionales y recreacionales / Motivação e autoconceito em windsurfistas: um estudo com participantes profissionais e recreativos

The purpose of this study was to examine self-determined motivation, achievement goal orientations, and self-concept characteristics of professional, competitive amateur and noncompetitive recreational windsurfers. Questionnaires were administered to a sample of 140 individuals including 79 (54 professionals and 25 non-professionals) individuals who were participants in either a championship or a recreational competition. Also, surveyed were 61 recreational but non-competitive windsurfers. Overall, the results revealed high levels of self-determined motivation. In addition, participants reported a positive physical self-concept, a strong task motivational orientation and a weak ego goal orientation. On the motivational and self-concept dimensions, significant differences were found between competitive windsurfers and non-competitive windsurfers but not between the professional competitors and the amateur competitors. No significant gender differences emerged. Age was negatively related to an ego goal orientation as well as to physical self-concept. Performance outcomes could not be predicted by this set of variables

El propósito de este estudio fue examinar las características de la motivación autodeterminada, la orientación de metas y el autoconcepto de winsurfistas profesionales, amateurs competitivos y recreacionales no competitivos. Los cuestionarios fueron administrados a una muestra de 140 individuos incluyendo 79 (54 profesionales y 25 no profesionales) que participaron en algún campeonato o competición. También fueron entrevistados 61 windsurfistas recreacionales no competitivos. En general, los resultados revelaron altos niveles de motivación autodeterminada. Además, los participantes informaron de un autoconcepto físico positivo, una fuerte orientación motivacional a la tarea y una débil orientación de meta ego. En las dimensiones de motivación y autoconcepto, se encontraron diferencias significativas entre los windsurfistas competitivos y no competitivos, pero no entre los competidores profesionales y los aficionados. No se encontraron diferencias significativas según el género. La edad se relacionó negativamente con la orientación de meta ego, así como con el autoconcepto físico. Los resultados no pueden predecirse por este conjunto de variables

O objetivo deste estudo foi examinar as características da motivação autodeterminada, a orientação por objetivos e o autoconceito dewindsurfistas profissionais, amadores competitivos e recreativos não competitivos. Os questionários foram administrados a uma amostra de 140participantes incluindo 79 (54 profissionais e 25 não profissionais) que participaram em algum campeonato ou competição. Também foram entrevistados61 windsurfistas recreativos que não competiam. Em geral, os resultados revelaram níveis elevados de motivação autodeterminada. Além disso, osparticipantes indicaram um autoconceito físico positivo, uma forte orientação motivacional à tarefa e uma fraca orientação ao ego. Nas dimensões demotivação e autoconceito, foram encontradas diferenças significativas entre os windsurfistas competitivos e os não competitivos (recreativos), mas nãose revelaram diferenças entre os windsurfistas profissionais e os amadores. Não se encontraram diferenças significativas em quanto ao género. A idaderelacionou-se negativamente com a orientação ao ego e com o autoconceito físico. Os resultados não se podem prever por este conjunto de variáveis